There is no clear end in sight to the war in Ukraine. Although Ukraine has made recent military gains, Putin has doubled down, by annexing parts of Ukraine and portraying Russia’s invasion as part of a civilisational war with the West. The Russian leadership has also hinted that nuclear weapons could come into play. As well as the rhetoric, there are real concerns that the changing nature of nuclear weapons may destabilise the traditional deterrence equation – creating many more possible scenarios than nuclear strategists and game theorists imagined during the Cold War.

Moscow’s nuke option

For years now Russia and other nuclear-armed states have invested in “tactical” nuclear weapons that are designed to be deployed in a war-fighting situation on the battlefield, rather than on long-range missiles aimed at the capitals of other nuclear states.

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